The History of Chewing Gum

Chewing and bubble gums are fancy and yummy delights which the world cannot do without.  Most people do not pass a day without having one or two of them.  From the littlest toddler to the oldest person alive, almost everyone knows what are they like and their taste.  That’s not everything.  The fact that they come coated in bright colors, multi-flavored, and cute shapes excite everyone, kids and adults alike.  Gums are certified perennial hit in the worldwide market and they occupy a shelf in almost every store.  They are found in jars in many homes and they are given as rewards in the kindergarten school.  During Halloween, not a child goes home without gums in his treat or trick basket.  In fact, there are even bubble gum blowing contests which have become one of the popular trends and fun activities of most people. If gums were martians, they would have invaded earth a long time ago.  It’s unimaginable, but the gum phenomenon is true.

But while most people are busy chewing or blowing gums outdoors or indoors, how many of them really know the story behind them?  Each time you put a gum or possibly gums in your mouth, do you ever wonder how they have turned out to be what they are now?   There may be a few nods, yet most likely, majority of the answers is ‘no.’  That’s quite understandable.  Besides, who ever thought more seriously about gums except on how to blow the largest balloon to beat records? But to set things straight, may be its time to know a few interesting facts about gums.  Next time, at least, not only will you entertain and interest your colleagues by blowing large balloons, but also by sharing them a few words on how both chewing and bubble gums came to be.

It would be a good start to briefly differentiate between chewing and bubble gums.  On one hand, the former are manufactured primarily for chewing purposes and are either made out of chicle, a kind of natural latex or other bases such as petroleum.  On the other hand, the latter are specially created in order for people to be able to blow gum bubbles.  While chewing gums went out in the market in the late 1840’s, bubble gums were to follow only after few decades.

The production of commercial gums traces back to the late 1840’s.  Archeological researches, however, surprisingly reveal that the practice of chewing gum was already common during the ancient times.  The ancient Greeks are believed to chew a tree substance called “mastiche” since it comes from the Mastic Tree of Turkish origin.  Moreover, they used gums not only for enjoyment but for hygienic purposes such as cleaning their teeth and consequently refreshing their breath.  In India, betel was already used for centuries.  Then in Central America, the Maya Indians chewed a substance called “chicle” from the sapodilla tree.  Finally, the American Indians made gums out of the resin from spruce trees or from beeswax.  Obviously, the ancient gums were far different from the ones sold today.  In place of the sweet taste, the many fruit flavors, and other gum luxuries people enjoy today, the early people made the most out of mastiche, spruce, beeswax, and other natural gums coming from trees, grasses, and plants.

It was in 1848 when the first commercial gums were manufactured.  The Curtis brothers from Maine developed the first gum out of the resin from spruce tree.  It was called “State of Maine Pure Spruce Gum.”  Then in 1850’s they improved their gum recipe by using paraffin and by trying to put in some flavor.  For this they established the Curtis Chewing Gum Factory.

In the 1870’s Thomas Adams, who was a photographer then also tried his luck into the gum business through the influence of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna.  He followed a different trend by making his own version of gum out of chicle.  His business soon started to grow that he had to devise a gum making machine.  Perhaps his remarkable contribution was his adding the flavor of licorice in his product called “Black Jack.”

Then in 1880’s, the brothers Henry and Frank Fleer embarked on their own gum recipe.  While Henry introduced the sugar coated chicle and called it “Chiclet,” Frank attempted to invent the first bubble gum naming it “Blibber Blubber Bubble Gum.”  Unfortunately, the latter concept was never released because of its stickiness.  But an employee of their company had later discovered the secret behind making bubble gum.

During the same period, John Colgan thought of trying to put in a lasting flavor in gums.  His ingenious idea left a revolutionary and lasting mark in the gum industry.  In 1899, Franklin Canning, a dentist, developed a dental gum which he named “Dentyne.”

In 1914, Henry Fleer together with William Wrigley produced the popular “Wrigley Doublemint” which added both fruit and mint flavors to the chicle gum.  While Henry’s brother Frank didn’t pursue his Blibber-Blubber project, an accountant of their company named Walter Diemer accidentally discovered the secret of making the real bubble gum.  Diemer’s newly found recipe was an instant hit in the stores and so the Fleer Chewing Company proceeded in selling the first ever commercial bubble gum named “Dubble Bubble.”

Hence from that time onwards, chewing and bubble gums have continuously undergone series of changes and development in their recipes.  Today, gum lovers worldwide can enjoy the many flavors, colors, and shapes of both chewing and bubble gums.  Moreover, most gums now are made out of corn syrup, natural latex or plastic, flavorings, and softeners.

Since the initial release of gums in the market, their popularity has continued to increase.  It is said that the physicians in the 1860’s discouraged their people from chewing gum because it would make their intestines stick all together.  Well, it seems that gums have gone all the way through history to prove the opposite.  Gums are still No. 1 among kids and adults.

What is HTTP?

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol that lets you exchange different types of media over the Worldwide Web. Basically, it is the language that Web clients and servers use to communicate. Released in 1990, the original version of HTTP (HTTP/0.9) was a very simple protocol for raw data transfer across the Internet. The current version (HTTP/1.1) has been greatly improved to make Web client/server connections more reliable, efficient, and secure. With the current version of HTTP, servers can transmit multiple objects such as text and graphics, through a single TCP connection using longer packets. It also allows a client to save Web pages through caching and to compare saved pages with requested pages. If the two are identical, the Web browser will use the Cached copy of the page to save bandwidth and time.

The HTTP protocol is a request/response protocol. When you enter an address of a web site into a web browser’s address field, the browser builds an HTTP request and sends it out to the IP address indicated by the URL. It then returns the Web server’s information to you in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Every Web server machine has an HTTP daemon. A daemon is a program that is designed to wait for HTTP requests and handle them when they arrive. The HTTP daemon in the destination server machine receives the request and, after any necessary processing, sends back a response with the requested information. HTTP uses a formatted string called a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) to identify a resource. A URI is a combination of a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and a URN (Uniform Resource Name). URIs are also known as WWW addresses and Universal Document Identifiers.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol is used for communication between a browser and a Web server. It has a set of rules for exchanging files on the Web. A feature of HTTP is the typing and negotiation of data representation, allowing systems to be built independently of the data being transferred. The protocol is called, connectionless because, once the single request has been satisfied, the connection is dropped. The HTTP protocol is based on a request/response paradigm. The communication generally takes place over a TCP/IP connection on the Internet. The default port is 80, but other ports can be used. This does not preclude the HTTP/1.0 protocol from being implemented on top of any other protocol on the Internet, so long as reliability can be guaranteed.

Genetically Modified Foods – Is it Worth the Risks?

For over ten thousand years farmers have allowed nature to enhance their crops’ taste, hardiness and productivity using natural reproduction. This crossbreeding was used by farmers to produce and better final crops. During the last century, this ancient technique was sped up with the help of more accurate, scientific attempts to oversee the breeding and selection process. Fortunately, new scientific developments are making it possible to create crops with far greater precision and far greater diversity than ever before. These crops are known as Genetically Modified Foods.

Genetically modified foods are produced by plants or animals that have had their genes changed in the laboratory. All living organisms have chromosomes, which are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short. DNA is the chemical building block of all life (AgBiotechNet, 2003). By altering the genes, scientists can manipulate and modify the characteristics of an organism. Singling out a gene is a complicated process. First the DNA is broken down into gene-sized pieces using restriction enzymes (www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au). Next, the pieces of DNA are inserted into bacterial cells using DNA Ligase. These cells are cloned and stored in a DNA library. Genes are discovered using radioactive tags, and once a bond is formed, the gene can be identified and decoded. Using these this scientific practice, genes from other living organisms can be inserted into plant or animal DNA with impressive results (Labeling Genetically Modified Foods). The first transgenic crop created in 1983 was a tobacco plant that was resistant to herbicide. Ten years after that, tomatoes in which the ripening was delayed, were introduced in the U.S. market. It wasn’t long before the European market started selling genetically modified tomato paste.

Modifying genes to create useful crop takes a lot of work. Science has developed a number of techniques aimed at splicing a desired gene with a plant. One technique makes use of a soil bacterium, Argo bacterium tumefaciens. This microbe, dubbed the first genetic engineer, has evolved the ability to insert stretches of DNA into plants (Aqua Bounty Farms). The bacterium can cause disease in some plants by inserting its DNA into the plant cell. Once the plant cell is infected, the bacterium’s DNA can easily attach itself to the plant chromosome. Scientists get Agro tumefaciens to deliver genes of their choice. Another technique use is biolistics. This technique uses a high-pressure helium gas to fire the desired gene into plant cells. The foreign DNA is carried on tiny little pieces of gold-like particles. Examples of food modified by this method are wheat and rice. Another method scientist’s use relies on protoplasts method. These allowed plant cell that have had their tough walls removed. This gives the foreign DNA easier access to the cell interior. Once the DNA is inserted into the plant cell, these are grown into plants. Seeds harvested from these laboratory plants are put onto the market and are ready for purchase. All of these techniques depend on the remarkable fact that many plants can be regenerated from a single cell or small piece of plant tissue.

This technology begins with the scientists who create it and continually to modify and establish new techniques to help the genetic modifying process better. Farmers then take these processes and apply it to their crops to develop their GM food. This food then is distributed to the retailers who then sell the product to the consumers where it has an affect to all who buy this food.

The interest of scientists are to continue to develop the methods and for the benefits of creating a technology to improve our food to make it healthier and more efficient in yields. They also look at this as a chance for profit in creation of something ground-breaking.

The farmers (including animal farmers) in most countries are being forced to bear responsibility for any harm that might have been caused by genetic foods. While the farmers are being forced to take responsibility for their actions the risk just might be worth it for some farmers. The fact that farmers will be guaranteed a yield of fruit and vegetables by farming genetic foods might outweigh the consequences (Labeling Genetically Modified Foods). This way they will profit year after year not matter the weather conditions and no disease or insect will be able to ruin their harvest.

While there was an incident a couple of years ago with animal feed corn being mixed in with taco shells. The Texas Company was sued and had to pay for the cleanup of the contaminated cornfields. The Agriculture Department’s settlement with the Texas Company that mishandled gene-altered corn, portrayed three months ago as a stringent crackdown designed to send a message to other potential violators, actually involved a no-interest $3.5 million government loan to help clean up the cornfields (AgBiotechNet 2003). This shows that the government is actually interested in this technologies advancement here in the United States.

The retailers are the ones that sell the product to the customers. This is where most people get their hands on GM foods. About 70 percent of the food sold in the United States contains ingredients that have been injected with foreign genes. While some people might argue that inserting genes into the food we eat is bad for our health with it being in so much of our food it will be tremendously hard to completely stop using foreign genes in our foods.

Genes are also being used to change the meats we eat. In the United States it is most widely used with fish. Marine fisheries are collapsing. About 70 per cent of the world’s conventional marine species are fully exploited, over-exploited, depleted or in the process of recovering from over-fishing. A fifth of all freshwater fish are either extinct or endangered. Scientist is using this technology in fish farms to make bigger and meatier salmon. The altered genetic fish grows to maturity faster also making it far more economic for the fish farmers.

The prospect of improving human health and alleviating human suffering through genetic medicine and research is a very big upside. Generic engineering has a lot of potential as far as furthering medicine. Medicine can be genetically implemented into fruit and vegetables to fight disease. It can help fight anything from the common cold to a deadly disease such as cancer. Foods will be in a sense, optimized, as crops will be able to be harvested in any type of weather and will have longer life in the field as well on the shelves in supermarkets. They will be resistant to the pests and diseases which allow them to have greater yields in harvesting which will increase the amount of food supply. [pagebreak title=’ Genetically modified foods 3′]They have enhanced taste and quality. For example, corns taste sweeter when the crop has been genetically modified (howstuffworks.com, 2003). Crops will also have reduced maturation time. This increased food supply can also supply food to the starving third world countries.

Not only will crops will be optimized, animals will be implemented with similar traits. They will have increased resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiency. There will be a better yield of meat, eggs, and milk. The ability of the transgenic salmon to produce small quantities of antifreeze was sufficiently encouraging to the scientists for the work to be expanded to include other commercially important traits. To the food production industry, rapid growth is probably one of the most interesting traits. Thus, the next endeavour was to produce rapidly growing salmon (Aqua Bounty Farms Inc., 2003). Animal health will be improved as there will also be better diagnostic methods (Office of Science, 2003).

However there are also health risks when it comes to this technology. Genetic manipulation could enhance natural plant toxins by switching on a gene with toxic effects. People with allergies could be exposed to proteins they react to without knowing it. Foreign genes might alter the nutritional value of food in unpredictable ways which could mean bad nutrition.

Supporters of GM food believe the technology could offer cheaper, safer and more nutritious food. However, opponents argue that there are still many unknowns, despite the absence of problems so far. The refusal of the Zambian government to accept genetically modified maize as food aid is just the latest incident to bring attention to GM foods (AgBiotechNet, 2003). There is a very big risk of mix breeding of native plants, which can harm the ecosystem around the globe. Africa, which is mostly in drought being able to grow food without the usual amount of water, is a tremendous gain and has more positives then negative affects. Although scientists have a fear of mix breeding of plants it has not yet taken place. As much as the scientists have predicted that it will happen there has not yet been an outbreak of superweeds taken over the eco system. So the fruit and vegetables will benefit the people more than harm them and their ecosystem.

The biggest issue dealing with genetically modified foods is the labeling of these products. The lack of labeling causes controversy, as some consumers want to know what they are eating.

Genetically modified food is still a developing technology that needs to be thoroughly tested to ensure the safety to our health as well as mother earth. The advantages of this technology can help solve many problems with farmers as well as health issues through the ties with medicine. Crops and animals now have better yields as well been optimized to their full potential. The risks involved are the same involved with regular crops cross-breeding, and there has been no scientific evidence to back up these concerns. The other concern with labeling is one that is easily fixed. The food is safe as it all is FDA approved before it is being available to the public. Genetically modified food has been around for thousands years beginning with cross-breeding. It is not a new process but just an advanced method of achieving the same results with better efficiency.

Mexico is a Drug Trafficker’s Emporium

The 140 mile border between California and Mexico is the ground for many things that affect both the United States and Mexico.  The growing volume of commercial and pedestrian traffic that plays an integral role in our nation’s economy also creates an infinite number of opportunities for drug trafficking organizations.

The drug threat presented by the United States and Mexico Border is fairly consistent with the national drug threat, and to a certain extent, seems to define the overall drug threat against the United States.  Mexico is the largest transshipment point of South American cocaine destined for the United States, and 65% of this cocaine reaches American cities through the California/Mexico border.  Mexico also remains a major source country for heroin and marijuana, and many of these Mexican based trafficking organizations are utilized by Colombian Cartels to transship drugs destined for the United States.

As a waiver, while I am not exactly a member of the DEA, I have utilized a number of tools to obtain more than a sufficient amount of information on drug trafficking over the California-Mexico border.

Drug trafficking organizations have grown and prospered because of the illegal status of drugs in the United States, and Mexican based groups have expanded because of the business Colombian based drug traffickers have done with them, making Mexico a drug trafficker’s emporium.

First, I will talk about how drug trafficking started as a result of different laws on each side of the border.  Then I will discuss why Mexican based groups are willing to bring drugs into the United States for the Colombian drug traffickers.  Lastly, I will tell you why Mexico is a drug trafficker’s emporium!

Prohibition on one side of the United States-Mexican border and legal commerce on the other created the conditions for drug trafficking.  When opium was prohibited in the United States–it was legal in Mexico.  Social agents who commercialized it were criminals on one side of the border and legitimate traders on the other.  However, the circle was completed when Mexico eventually adopted similar laws to the United States.  And so, a new social category was born: the drug trafficker.  These criminal groups have smuggled heroin, marijuana and cocaine across the Southwest border and distributed them throughout the United States since the 1970s.

Mexico is the largest transshipment point of South American cocaine destined for the United States.  Once again, a whopping 65% of this cocaine reaches American cities via the United States/Mexico border.  Many Mexican based trafficking organizations are utilized by Colombian cartels to transship drugs destined for the United States.  The border between the United States and Mexico is 2,000 miles; while the border with the most traffic across it, the California-Mexico border, is 140 of those 2,000 miles.  Mexico is definitely responsible for supplying most of foreign marijuana available in the United States.  Virtually all marijuana smuggled into United States, whether grown in Mexico or shipped through Mexico, is smuggled across the California/Mexico border.  The growing volume of commercial and pedestrian traffic through the California/Mexico border plays an integral role in the nation’s economy and creates opportunity for drug trafficking.

Now that I have discussed how drug trafficking originally came about, I will now talk about how Mexican based groups have expanded because of the business Colombian based drug traffickers have done with them.

Previously limited to marijuana and heroin smuggling, Mexican based groups have expanded and profited by maintaining a mutually beneficial relationship with Colombian based traffickers.  Colombian based drug lords and Mexican based trafficking organizations entered into a symbiotic relationship that resulted in Mexican based traffickers playing an increasing role in cocaine trade.  Most of cocaine entered United States through the Caribbean and Southern Florida in the 1980’s.

However, increased enforcement efforts forced traffickers to shift the majority of their smuggling operations to Mexico.  Mexican based groups receive payment as much as 50% of each cocaine shipment they smuggle into the United States for Colombian based traffickers.

This provides benefits for both parties:

  • Protection for Colombian based traffickers because it minimizes their risk of exposure to United States law enforcement authorities and it provides Mexican based traffickers with a valuable source of revenue and domestic customers.  Distribution of multi-ton quantities of cocaine once dominated by the Colombian based drug traffickers is now controlled by trafficking groups from Mexico.
  • In turn, Mexican based traffickers now control a substantial proportion of wholesale cocaine distribution throughout the Western and Mid-Western United States.  Methods of Transportation over border include the transportation of: Marijuana, methamphetamine, heroin and cocaine concealed in compartments within cars and trucks; commingled with legitimate cargo.  Cocaine shipments average between 20-50 kilograms, sometimes carried VIA “mules” – who are people who carry cocaine over the border.  The primary cocaine importation points in United States are here in Southern California, Texas & Arizona.

Now that I have discussed how Mexican based groups have expanded because of the business Colombian based drug traffickers have done with them, I will now talk about why Mexico is just like a drug trafficker’s emporium!

Mexican based groups offer a range of services for Colombian drug traffickers such as:

  • Wholesale cocaine distribution
  •  Money laundering for Colombian clients
  • Direct delivery to wholesale level customers for Major Colombian based cocaine groups

In conclusion, drug trafficking came about because there was a difference in laws on either side of the United States/Mexican border.  In turn, Mexican based groups have expanded because of the business Colombian based drug traffickers have done with them.  Mexico is a drug trafficker’s emporium because of all of the “amenities” it provides the big cartels with.

Drug trafficking is a huge problem in the United States.  The economical benefit for Mexican based groups has caused the drug trafficking business to continuously grow in many directions, providing a money source for people in Mexico, as well as a means of getting the drugs over the United States/Mexico border for Colombian based drug traffickers; Mexico has become a drug trafficker’s emporium because it provides everything a drug trafficker needs to get drugs into the United States.

Drug trafficking organizations operating along the California/Mexico Border, which are controlled by Mexican-based kingpins, continue to be a great concern to communities in California and the nation. As a result of their alliances with Colombian organizations, Mexico-based drug trafficking organizations have become increasingly organized, specialized and efficient, with individual components steadily consolidating power and control over well-defined areas of responsibility and geographic strongholds.

Originally authored by Christina Prevot

Will the American Empire Crumble?

It looks like Max Boot is not the only person who is convinced that the world is turning into an American Empire. While I previously thought the concept of an American Empire to be revolutionary and innovative, it looks like Chalmers Johnson and more political minds are actually working in cooperation with each other to warn humankind of the United States ’ growing military dominance over the entire world. Interestingly enough, over 200 years ago, George Washington stated his opinion on ultimately what is happening now; President Washington said, “Overgrown military establishments are under any form of government inauspicious to liberty, and are to be regarded as particularly hostile to Republican liberty”. George Washington’s ancient words ultimately summarize what political theorists such as Johnson and Boot are trying to say. Adversely, in 2002, The National Security Strategy of the United States favorably referred to the United States ’ undeniable presence all over the globe by stating,

“The presence of American forces overseas is one of the most profound symbols of the U.S. commitments to allies and friends. Through our willingness to use force in our own defense and in defense of others, the United States demonstrates its resolve to maintain a balance of power that favors freedom”.

Should we trust the words of the present, or is history in the process of repeating itself, making it logical to use the words of a President who led our country over 200 years ago?

Johnson wrote that the United States has “undergone a transformation from republic to empire that may well prove irreversible”. It is understandable that many people are worried about what is referred to as the United States ’ growing military dominance over the entire world. It is hard to deny facts, and in this case, the bare facts are truly eye opening. Currently, there are 725 official U.S. military bases—and that is outside of the United States, as well as 969 publicly known bases within the United States . Chalmers Johnson’s writings indicate that he feels that the rise of American militarism is proof that the “United States prefers to deal with other nations through the use or threat of force rather than negotiations, commerce or cultural interaction”. It is rather daunting to learn that there are such a significant number of U.S. military bases throughout the world, that is if going by the words of President Washington; however, if trusting the concept put forth by The National Security Strategy of the United States then the facts should actually be reassuring.

Every History and Political Science teacher I have ever had has continuously lived by the very fact that history does repeat itself; while I do not whole-heartedly agree with everything Johnson has to say in his work, The Sorrows of Empire, I do recall learning that while every empire rises, it also has to fall—it’s nearly comparable to a roller coaster because the uphill climb cannot last forever. Johnson puts forth irrefutable facts such as that the United States has a bigger military than the next 12 biggest militaries in the world, combined; as well as the fact that Russia has the second largest military budget in the world, and their budget is only 14% of the United States’ military budget. These facts do nothing less than cause a sense of anxiety to those who read and absorb them. Embarrassingly, I had no idea that numbers these large existed. Is it wrong to at least feel fortunate that I’m not a citizen of a nation that the United States is currently against?

Many critics voice that the United States should mind its’ own business, but at the same time the whole world expects the United States to intervene when there are international issues, or provide the most aid when natural disasters in places other than the United States’ territory occur.

Historically, Americans have had a responsibility to free foreign nations from any negative positions they have been put in, especially if the result is greater freedom. The United States of America is a true hegemon– the United States is the largest economy and has the most powerful military. In turn, the world expects the United States to battle terrorists, provide aid for natural disasters, and ultimately save the world.

Johnson also points out that while many critics of the Bush Administration think that the administration is too concerned with obtaining and protecting oil, as well as fighting terrorism—the United States is actually more concerned with dominating space; after understanding Johnson’s point, I see exactly what he is saying. While the word ‘empire’ is commonplace in my vocabulary, I looked up what exactly an empire is. The definition stated that an empire is “a major political unit having a territory of great extent or a number of territories or peoples under a single sovereign authority”; as well as “an extensive territory or enterprise under single domination or control”.

Returning to the Romans and history repeating itself, I think it is beneficial to look at what made the Roman Empire fall the way it did. The Roman Empire became huge, the strongest and most powerful in the world. The Romans took everything for granted, and expected that since their empire was on top, they would forever remain that way. The Roman Empire fell because its political make-up left it unable to defend itself against invasion of any kind. The Roman Empire was under strict rule, the citizens as a whole were not united and many people were in opposition to that rule. Many Romans lacked nationalism, and did not feel that the Roman Empire was worth protecting.

The fall of the Roman Empire rings overwhelmingly similar to the United States’ current situation. The United States , recently deemed responsible for turning the world into an ‘American Empire’ is a hegemon ahead of every other country in almost every arena possible. A lot of spectators feel that the United States assumes it will remain on top, however critics have analyzed and compared the United States to tragedies such as the fall of the Roman Empire . The United States has the most powerful and largest military that is currently occupying the majority of the world, the question is, would the United States actually be able to protect itself against any invasion? Are all of our citizens united? Or better yet, are they still divided because of the current administration’s decisions, as well as the outcome of the 2004 presidential election? The United States has all of the ingredients for the recipe for downfall, can the downfall of the hegemon in of which we live be stopped, or at least halted? Chalmers Johnson does not think either are possible, and the scary thing is, that he is not the only political mind who feels that way.

Originally authored by Christina Prevot